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3 days ago7 min read

Anatolian Beyliks

AR Dirham of Kaykhusraw III of the Seljuqs of Rum (CE 1265-1283).


The Seljuks of Rum, who ruled over much of Anatolia from the late 11th century, faced increasing pressure from the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. In 1243, the Seljuks were decisively defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ. This defeat marked the beginning of Seljuk subjugation to the Mongol Ilkhanate, a division of the Mongol Empire that controlled Persia and surrounding regions.

Battle of Köse Dağ (1243). Hayton of Corycus, Fleur des histoires d'orient. Folio 18 of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France NAF 886 edition, here. The text of the manuscript on this page refers to the victory of the Mongols over the Turks at "Cosadac" ("Köse Dağ"), "followed by the conquest of Turkey in 1244".


After the decline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, Anatolia became fragmented and several beyliks emerged. These principalities were significant players in the region's political and military landscape.  This map shows the landscape of beyliks circa 1330 CE.  These beyliks would continue to wrestle with the Ilkhanate.

The Germiyan Beylik

Yakub Bey,  was the founder the the Germiyan Beylik, which briefly gained superiority over other beyliks in the region, however during the reign of of his son, Mehmed Bey, the Aydınids and others became independent.


Mehmed Bey took over the leadership of the Germiyanid Beylik from his father in AH 741 (CE 1340) . It has been recorded in a stone foundation document for what is today the Kütahya Encaustic Tile Museum from the time of Yakub Bey II (1387-1429) that Kula and Simav districts, previously occupied by the Catalans, were taken back from the Byzantines by Mehmed Bey. The Catalans were a company of mercenaries led by Roger de Flor in the early 14th century and hired by Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos to combat the increasing power of the Anatolian beyliks.


Disintegration of the Ilkhante

Islamic, Mongols. Ilkhanids. Abu Saʿid, AH 716-736 / AD 1316-1335. 6 Dirhams (Silver, 25 mm, 8.5g), type H (bilingual), Astarabad, Khani Year 33 = AH 733/4 = AD 1333.

Obv: Within a circle, ‘lā ilāha illā Allāh Muḥammad rasūl Allāh ṣalla Allāh ʿalayh’ (‘There is no deity but Allah. Muhammad is the messenger of Allah. May Allah bless him’ in Arabic in the spiraled Kufic script); the names of the four Rashidun Caliphs around.

Rev: Within a circle, ‘Busaida’ (‘Abu Saʿid’ in the Uighur script); above and below, ‘al-sulṭān al-ʿālam al-ʿādil / ḍarb – Astarābād / Bahādur Khān khalada mulkuhū’ (‘The just king of the world, Bahadur Khan. May his kingdom be perpetuated. Struck in Astarabad’ in Arabic); around, ‘ḍuriba fī / sana thalāth / wa thalāthīn / al-khāniyya’ (‘Struck in the Khani Year 33).

Ref: Album 2217. Diler Ab-542.


The death of Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan in 1335 without an heir led to a succession crisis. Abu Sa'id was the last effective Ilkhan, and his death created a power vacuum. With no strong central authority, various factions and claimants vied for control, leading to political chaos. The Ilkhanate fractured into multiple rival territories (The Jalayirids, Chobanids, Injuids, and Muzaffarids) and local rulers asserting their independence. The Mongol aristocracy, which had once provided strong leadership, was deeply divided, and infighting became common.

An Ilkhanate depiction of mounted warriors pursuing their enemies. Probably a conflict between Mongols.  Image Public Domain from Rashid-ad-Din's Gami' at-tawarih. Tabriz (?), 1st quarter of 14th century. Water color on paper. Source: Dschingis Khan und seine Erben (exhibition catalogue), München 2005, p. 255.


This coin from the Ilkhan predecessor and father to Abu Sa'id, Uljaitu:

Ilkhanids. Öljeytü (Uljaytu). AH 703-716 / AD 1304-1316. AR Dirhams (22.5mm, 4.29 g, 1h). Type B. Caucuses mint, Album 2185.


Fragmentation of the territory of the Ilkhanate territory into various polities, including the Jalayirids, Public Domain map from Wikimedia Commons.


This coin from Husayn I (reigned 1374–1382) of the Jalayarids which ruled over parts of modern-day Iraq and Iran from CE 1335 to 1432

Jalayrids: Sultan Husayn I, 1374-1382, AR dinar (2.78g), Hamadan , AH 780, 2 dinar variant of A-2308.3 and Zeno 53369 this appears to be a very rare coin RRR in Album type TC : five-vaned pattern / quatrefoil, kalima withinAlbum notes: "The date is engraved in minuscule words between the five vanes, often so wretchedly as to be utterly illegible"  This coin is Zeno 83055 (this coin)


An Akce of Mehmed Bey, Germiyan Beylik

This silver coin is from the period of Mehmed Bey (AH 741-762 / CE 1340-1361). In the early years of his rule, coins he minted featured the Kalima-i Tawhid on both sides. Tawheed (Arabic: توحيد, Tawḥīd) means the oneness or absolute unity of God in Islam.

Germiyan, Mehmed Bey, CE 1341-1361

Coin # 5 from Germiyanoğulları Beyliği Sikkeleri, AR Akçe, Mehmed Bey, Mint Location Unknown, Date UnknownObv: Stylized Kalima-i Tawhid لَا إِلٰهَ إِلَّا اللّٰهُ مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ اللّٰهِ, Mehmed محمدRev: Kalima-i Tawhid


While Kufic script is used on the obverse of the coin, Naskh script is used on the reverse. The word "Muhammad," which is part of the Kalima-i Tawhid on the front side, is emphasized. In this way, Mehmed Bey embedded his name within the Kalima-i Tawhid on these coins to conceal it. The reason for this concealment was the pressure exerted by the Ilkhanids. During periods of intense Ilkhanid influence in Anatolia, many beylik rulers avoided clearly inscribing their names on coins.


The Anatolian Beyliks, including the Germiyanids, Karamanoğulları, and Aydınoğulları, often sought independence from Ilkhanid rule. They resisted Ilkhanid demands and attempted to expand their territories despite Mongol pressure. This struggle for autonomy sometimes led to open conflict or subtle acts of defiance, such as the secretive minting of coins or refusal to pay tribute. 


As the Ilkhanate faded, a new power in the region, the Ottomans, would gain control of the Germiyan Beylik through military action and marriage under the son and grandson of Mehmed Bey.  Yakub II, son of Suleiman, son of Mehmed was the last Germiyan Beylik and he bequeathed his remainin territory to  Yakub bequeathed his domains to Ottoman ruler Murad II when he died in January 1429.


I will add a few more coins from this region and time period:

A Candarid AR 1/2 Akce

This is a small rare coin from another Anatolian Beylik: Candarid Beylik

Ishfendiyarid (Candarid) : Kötürüm Bayezit, 1361-1385, AR ½ akçe (0.82g), Kastamonu, ND, A-1283.1, royal title amir a'dal, superb strike, perhaps the finest known, EF, RR.  This coin uses teh title amir a'dal which loosely translates to "Commander of Justice" or "Leader of Fairness" there is another variety that uses jalal al-din as the royal title which translates loosely to "The Glory of the Religion" or "Majesty of the Faith".


An Eretnid AR Akce

This coin from another of the Anatolian Beyliks of this period.

'Alā al-Dīn 'Alï (Ali Beg) (767-782 AH / CE 1366-1380) - Album 2324A AR akçe 1.61g, countermarked lillah in eye-shaped frame on earlier type of the same ruler.


A Muzaffarid AR 2 Dirham

Here is a coin (AR 2 dirham 2.83g) of the Muzaffarids andother of the post-Ilkhan ruling dynasties. Shah-i Shuja’s father, seized control of several key cities, including Yazd, Kerman, Shiraz, and Isfahan, during the collapse of the Ilkhanate.

Islamic, Persia (Post-Mongol). Muzaffarids. Jamal al-Din Shah-i Shuja', second reign, AH 767-786 / AD 1366–1384. 2 Dinars (Silver, 23 mm, 2.83 g), Shiraz, AH 771 = AD 1369/70. Album 2282.7.

Obv: Kalima in three lines within square

Rev: Name and titles, mint inter-linearly in six lines across field;


Amirs of Astarabad AR 6 Dirham

This last coin deserves its own write-up at some point. The Amirs of Astarabad emerged as a significant regional power in the early to mid-14th century, around the same time that the Ilkhanate was collapsing and the political landscape of Persia was becoming highly fragmented. The decline of Mongol authority created a power vacuum in the region, allowing various local rulers and factions to establish their own semi-independent states.

Islamic, Amirs of Astarabad. 6 Dirhams 4.06g, ND (AH 769-786 [1367-84]). Astarabad Mint. Amir Wali. AH 780 / 1378 CE. Album 2343.1. This coin is unusually well preserved.


The coins of the Amirs of Astarabad are often confused with the coins of the Sarbadars with whom they conflicted in the region.

Sarbadars AR 4 dirhams or ¼ Delhi tanka (2.49g), temp. ‘Ali Mu’ayyad, AH 763-786 / CE 1362-1384, Astarabad, 774 AH, Shi'ite reverse, type A-2342.1 (var. plain outer circle around obverse); Zeno #157046


The Sarbadars were a semi-independent, revolutionary, populist political movement that emerged in 14th-century Iran, in the region of Khorasan. They established a state centered in Sabzevar and existed from around 1337 to 1381. The name Sarbadar (Persian: سربدار) means "those who hang from the gallows" or "ready to face death," reflecting their defiant spirit and willingness to sacrifice their lives in the struggle against tyranny.


The Sarbadar movement arose during a period of political fragmentation and social unrest following the collapse of the Ilkhanate, the Mongol state that had controlled Persia. The movement was initially a response to oppressive Mongol rule and heavy taxation imposed on the local population. The people of Khorasan, weary of Mongol dominance and exploitation, rallied under the banner of the Sarbadars, who promised a more just and egalitarian society.


The Sarbadars contributed to the decline of Mongol influence in Persia and set the stage for future political developments, including the rise of the Timurid Empire and the subsequent Safavid dynasty, which would establish Shiism as the dominant faith in Iran. ‘Ali Mu’ayyad was the longest reigning Sarbadar ruler, and navigated a turbulent period which ended with the Sarbadars being absorbed into the rising empire of Timur (Tamerlane).


Several additional notes for more coins related to this time period:


References:

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