Gur-e-Amir - a mausoleum of the Asian conqueror Timur (also known as Tamerlane) in Samarkand, Uzbekistan (Copyright: under license from ShutterStock)
The Legend of Tamerlane
Edgar Allen Poe wrote a fictionalized poem about Timur that was published anonymously in 1827, lamenting a love traded for ambition. Marlowe wrote a fictionalized play about him in 1587, "Tamburlaine, the Great", that tells of humble origins as a Scythian shepherd, the love of an Egyptian princess, and success in conquering the world.
Poe's notes in the original publication tell of the light connection to any historical facts:
“Of the history of Tammerlane little is known; and with that little I have taken the full liberty of a poet. That he was descended from the family of Zinghis Khan is more than probable.- but he is vulgarly supposed to have been the son of a shepherd, and to have raised himself to the throne by his own address. He died in the year of 1405, in the time of Pope Innocent VII.”
-Edgar Allen Poe, 1827, Notes on TamerlaneNevertheless there is a person named Timur behind these stories with a reputation for brutality, who could line up with the description of a triumphant, proud spirit in Poe's poem:
I have not been always as now –
The fever’d diadem on my brow
I claim’d and won usurpingly –
Ay - the same heritage hath given
Rome to Caesar – this to me;
The heirdom of a kingly mind -
And a proud spirit, which hath striven
Triumphantly with human kind.
- Edgar Allen Poe, Tamerlane, 1827Tamerlane derives from Timur Lang and Lenk a Persian name used in contempt by his rivals مور لنگ is literally “Timur the Lame”. He is thought to have been wounded in his early life by arrows to his leg and hand from which he lost two fingers from his right hand and retained a permanent limp. He also took the title “Royal son in law” or Küregen after marrying in 1367 the princess Saray Mulk Khanum of the Chagatai Khanate, a descendant of Ghengis Khan’s second son Chagatai Khan. The Chagatai Khanate had been independent of the Mongol Empire for a century or more by the time of Timur.
Timur was born April 9th, 1336, in Kesh, near Samarkand, Transoxania (now in Uzbekistan) and died February 19th, 1405, in Otrar, near Chimkent (now in Kazakhstan).
In Poe’s poem, Timur relates his story to a “friar”, this seems not so improbable when reading of a Dominican friar sent in August 1401 to Timur's court by John VII Palaiologos to pay respect to Timur. Timur would defeat Turkish ruler Bayezid I in Ankara in 1402, this worked in favor of John VII and the Byzantine Empire in Constantinople by ending a 5-year struggle with Bayezid.
Puppet Khans of Timur
A brutally successful military commander, he built an empire that stretched from the Mediterranean to the border of China. Timur was born April 9th, 1336, in Kesh, near Samarkand, Transoxania (now in Uzbekistan) and died February 19th, 1405, in Otrar, near Chimkent (now in Kazakhstan).
To legitimize his position Timur placed Soyurgatmish, a member of Ögedei Khan's family (third son of Genghis Khan) on the throne of Western Chagatai province. Timur then ruled as an Amir. When Soyurgatmish died, his son Mahmud was made khan by Timur. Like his father, Mahmud served only as puppet to Timur. This first coin calls out Timur as Amir to Sultan Mahmud Khan and is the reference coin from the Zeno database.
Timurid, Timur with Mahmud Khan, 790-807AH / CE 1388-1405, AR Tanka, NM (Herat) mint, only one digit of date on flan: [7]9[6] AH 796 (CE 1394). Ref: A.2386, this coin the Zeno reference coin 267254 ex M. Tye May 1995 list 11 #105
Here is another coin referencing Mahmud Khan as overlord:
Timurid, Timur (Tamerlane) , 771-807 AH / CE 1370-1405, AR Tanka, 6.1 grams 29.5 mm, struck AH 79x, Oval flan, Album-2386
Obv: Timur and Chaghatayid overlord Mahmud and 3 circle pattern flag of Timurid empire at center, date around in margin.
Rev: Square Kufic design Kalima and the names of 4 orthodox caliphs around.
Steven Album mentions that "A-2386 (AR tanka of 6.2g), had many subtypes. Each mint or group of mints within a single province had distinctive subtypes, and at least 100 subtypes exist, mostly unpublished, at least with an illustration. There was no attempt made to standardize imperial coin designs until 827/828, during the reign of Shahrukh. Despite the theoretical standard of 6.2g, most specimens weigh between 5.75g and 6.15g, even when minimally worn and undamaged."An next, a coin of Timur without his overload mentioned.
Timurid, Timur (Tamerlane) AH 771-807/CE 1370-1405, AR 1/8 tanka (?) 1g 14mm, without his nominal overlord, thus likely struck during the last two years of his reign, uncertain mint, undated, local type not specifically listed in the Stephen Album's Checklist - extremely rare coin, perhaps unique?
Ref: A.2388 (var) , Zeno 267257 (this coin)
The Brutality of Timur
Timur was feared for his brutal destruction of cities and massacres of the inhabitants. Doukas (c. 1400–c. 1470), a Byzantine historian and chronicler who wrote an important historical account titled "The Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks", described this horrific punishment of a conquered city, Sebastea (modern-day Sivas in Turkiye).
"Once inside the city, the troops mercilessly cut down the citizens and pillaged them. Temir-khan gave orders that all the city nobles were to assemble in one place. He also ordered spacious pits to be dug for graves. The nobles were then bound in a fashion which no other tyrant had ever devised. Bending the neck down and thrusting it between the legs until the nose of that unfortunate man, whoever he might be, reached the anus, the knees and shins were raised to either side of the ears, and the man, looking like a spherical hedgehog, was cast into the grave. When ten or more men occupied one grave they did not fill it in with earth, but covered it first with planks and then threw earth over the planks so that the prisoners would not suffocate quickly and give up the ghost. Such was the torture that the Scythian devised!"
-Doukas, translated by Margoulias p89-90.Peter Jackson writes:
"Undeniably, Timur’s massacres were a more spectacular affair than those of the Mongols. Chinggis Khan had simply ordered the severance of thousands of heads (which were then counted as a means of gauging the numbers killed). Timur had towers of heads constructed, as at Zirih in Sīstān in 785/1383–4, at Isfahan in 789/1387, at Takrīt in 795/1393, at Delhi in 801/1398, at Aleppo in 803/1400, at Baghdad in 803/1401 (120 towers here, according to Ibn ‘Arabshāh) and at Smyrna in 805/1402. The number of heads at Isfahan totalled 70,000; Ḥāfiẓ-i Abrū, who made a circuit of the stricken city, estimated that there were twenty-eight towers, each averaging 1,500 skulls, on either side. Those at Aleppo presented an especially grisly spectacle, since the heads were deliberately positioned to face outwards; the Byzantine historian Doukas gives a similar report regarding the tower at Smyrna. Sharaf al-Dīn Yazdī observes that at Isfahan some of the troops shrank from the work of killing and purchased heads from others, so that a brisk traffic developed, a severed head initially fetching twenty kōpeki dinars."Timur's son Shahrukh
The next three coins come from the youngest son of Timur, Shah Rukh Mirza. After Timur's death the western portion of his empire was lost, however Shah Rukh still held control of the main trade routes between Asia and Europe including the Silk Road which brought great wealth. He chose Herat as the capital over Samarkand.
Islamic, Persia (Post-Mongol), Timurids, Shah Rukh I, AH 807-850 / CE 1405-1447, AR Tanka (21mm, 4.39g), dated AH 828 (AD 1426), Sabzawar mint
Obv: Shahrukh with titles, year and mint
Rev: (Album type T1) kalima in three lines within square "la ilah illa / Allah muhammad / rasul Allah" which translates as "There is no God but Allah, Muhammad is the messenger of Allah". The names of the four Rashidun ("rightly guided") caliphs in petals around the square, the first four caliphs of Islam who reigned 632-661 CE.
Ref: SICA 9, 388–9; Album 2405
Where is Sabzawar?
This Google map shows the location of Sabzawar in western Afghanistan.
This next coin from Shahrukh is from Astarabad in AH 829. This map shows where Astarabad is in Northern Iran about 20 miles from the Caspian Sea.
This coin another variation of Album 2405 with a similar reverse with Kalima and Rashudin. The date assigned is deduced as it is a year that contains a 9 and is later than the coinage reform of 828 AH and was represented in a hoard deposited in 833AH.
Islamic, Persia (Post-Mongol), Timurids, Shah Rukh I, AH 807-850 / CE 1405-1447, AR Tanka (21mm, 4.39g), assigned to AH 829 (AD 1426), Astarabad mint
Obv: Shahrukh with titles, year and mint
Rev: (Album type T1) kalima in three lines within square "la ilah illa / Allah muhammad / rasul Allah" which translates as "There is no God but Allah, Muhammad is the messenger of Allah". The names of the four Rashidun ("rightly guided") caliphs in petals around the square, the first four caliphs of Islam who reigned 632-661 CE.
Timurid Dynasty, Shah Rukh Mirza (reigned CE 1405-1447) 828 AH Herat mint (?) beh bud countermark of Sultan Husayn after an attempt to reform the currency in AH 895 (CE 1489/90), Astarabad and Herat are the common mints for western rulers, Samarqand and Bukhara for the eastern rulers. The countermarks revalued coins in terms of a standard dinar. A 5g tanka was valued at 6 dinars. (Album-2437). Beh bud means “prosperity”, and was the name of Sultan Husayn’s coinage. Sultan Husayn (Abu’l-Ghazi), at Herat, AH 873-911 / CE 1469-1506.
Lacking a clear path for succession, Timurid nobles fought each other to grab parts of the vast empire built by Timur. Shah Rukh held the eastern empire, while Herat stabilized under the control of Sultan Husayn Mirza Bayqara, grandson of Timur and nephew of Shah Rukh Mirza.
Timurids. Sultan Husayn, third reign, AH 873-911 / AD 1469-1506. Tanka (Silver, 28 mm, 4.76 g), post-reform type, Herat, date off flan.
Obv: In the central field, ‘lā ilāha illā Allāh / Muḥammad rasūl Allāh’ (‘There is no deity but Allah. Muhammad is the messenger of Allah’ in Arabic); the names and epithets of the four Rashidun Caliphs in the four surrounding panels.
Rev: Within a central eye-shaped cartouche, ‘beh būd-e Harāt’ (‘Prosperity of Herat’ in Persian); around, ‘al-sulṭān al-aʿẓam Abuʾl-ghāzī Ḥusayn sulṭān bahādur khallada Allāh taʿālā mulkahū wa sulṭānahū …’ (‘The supreme sultan Abuʾl-Ghazi Husayn Sultan Bahadur. May Allah, the Exalted, perpetuate his kingdom and sovereignty …’ in Arabic).
Ref: Album 2432.3.‘Beh būd’ (‘Prosperity’ in Persian) was the epithet for the currency of Sultan Husayn
Timur's Descendants
The Taj Mahal, photo by Amal Mongia, taken January 06-early morning with a Lubitel camera, using expired Ektachrome slide film, and cross processed. It is NOT Photoshopped. Licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons.
Perhaps the most enduring legacy of Timur’s lineage was the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent. The founder of the Mughal dynasty, Ẓahīr-ud-Dīn Muḥammad Bābur (1483–1530), was a direct descendant of Timur (through his father) and also of Genghis Khan (through his mother).
Building on that lineage, Babur conquered northern India, establishing the Mughal Empire in 1526. His descendants—Humayun, Akbar the Great, Jahāngīr, Shāh Jahān, and Aurangzeb, among others—ruled a vast and culturally rich empire. This dynasty governed large parts of South Asia until the mid-19th century, leaving an indelible mark on the region.
Akbar the Great
Akbar the Great (1542–1605), the third Mughal Emperor (1556–1605) and grandson of Babur, presided over a transformative period in Indian history. He ascended the throne at the age of 13 after the sudden death of his father, Humayun, Akbar faced immediate challenges from regional rivals. Supported by his regent, Bairam Khan, he quickly consolidated power. Over a nearly five-decade reign, he expanded the empire’s boundaries across northern and central India, annexing regions including Gujarat, Bengal, and parts of the Deccan. Key to his success was a flexible policy of tolerance, forging alliances with Rajput chiefs through matrimonial ties and granting them high-ranking administrative positions. He also invested in administrative reforms, establishing a centralized bureaucracy organized under the mansabdari system, standardizing revenue collection, and improving communication networks.
Akbar’s court at Fatehpur Sikri and later Agra became a vibrant center of intellectual and artistic activity, attracting scholars, poets, and artists. Encouraging religious debate, he promoted the syncretic “Din-i Ilahi” philosophy, which sought to foster harmony among diverse faiths.
Akbar’s patronage of art, architecture, and literature led to a flourishing Indo-Persian culture. Upon his death in 1605, Akbar left behind a prosperous, stable empire that set the stage for his successors’ continued dominance in the Indian subcontinent.
Mughals, Akbar (1542–1605), AR Rupee, 11.47g, Ahmedabad Mint, AH 987 (CE 1579-80), Kalima type, (KM 80.2)
India, Mughal Empire, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Akbar, AH 963-1014 / AD 1556-1605, Æ Dam (22mm, 20.6g, 19h), Dogaon mint, Dated AH 984 (AD 1576/7). Denomination and mint formula / Hijri date in Persian. Liddle Type C-1; KM 28.18.
Prince Salim / Jahangir
This next coin of Jahangir, known as Prince Salim before he ascended the throne, comes with a tragic love story.
A 1960s movie, "Mughal-e-Azam" ("Greatest Mughal"), is centered on the story of Emperor Akbar and his son Prince Salim, and the court dancer Anarkali. A synopsis of the plot can be found on Wikipedia:Mughal-e-Azam.
The film is based on a legend, but it is given credence by at least two texts that assert Anarkali's existence during the historical period of Emperor Akbar (1556–1605).
-Wikipedia:Mughal-e-Azam. You can watch the full movie on YouTube: https://youtu.be/-wiDqcU-JCA?si=7leOtuaDbXLvEyLC
There is some evidence behind the story from a tomb in Lahore:
"Anarkali, according to a popular tale, was a slave girl in Akbar's harem with whom Jahangir, when still Prince Salim, fell in love. Akbar was enraged and is said to have had her buried alive. There is no mention of this event in the historical sources for Akbar or Jahangir, but a verse on the sarcophagus-shaped tombstone or cenotaph of the mausoleum reads:
I would give Thanks to my God until the day of resurrection,
Ah! Should I ever behold the face of my beloved again.
A cartouche inserted before the second verse contains the inscription majnun Salim-i Akbar ("The madly-in love Salim, [son of] Akbar"). The tombstone is otherwise covered with the ninety-nine beautiful names of Allah, and also bears two dates, given both in letters and in numerals: 1008 (1599-1600) and 1024 (1615-16), obviously referring to the date of death and date of the tombstone, respectively."
-Koch, Ebba. “The Mughal Emperor as Solomon, Majnun and Orpheus, or the Album as a Think Tank for Allegory.” Muqarnas, vol. 27, 2010, pp. 277–311.
Jahangir (AH 1014-1037/1605-1627 AD) Ahmadabad Mint, Silver Rupee, AH 1023 1614/15 CE, Month Aban (Scorpio), "Muzaiyan" (Ornamented) Couplet
Obv: Persian legend "ba naam (named) Shah Noor ud din (Light of the Religion) Jahangir (Conqueror of the World)" & Hijri year 1023
Rev: Persian legends Elahi month 'Aban' at the top, Muzaiyan, & zarb Ahmadabad" at the bottom ("struck in the beautiful city of Ahmadabad in the divine month of Aban")
Shah Jahan
The next coin is from Shah Jahan (Paternal line: Babur → Humayun → Akbar → Jahangir → Shah Jahan) who is well known or his patronage of monumental architecture and the arts, which ushered in the zenith of Mughal architectural splendor. Shah Jahan commissioned the Taj Mahal and other significant projects, including the Red Fort and Jama Masjid in Delhi, as well as parts of the Agra Fort and the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. These structures blend Persian, Turkic, and Indian architectural traditions, with intricate decoration and sophisticated design elements.
There is here too another love story of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal (originally Arjumand Begum) who died in 1631 while giving birth to their 14th child. The Taj Mahal, built in her honor, is an enduring symbol of love.
Mughals, Shah Jahan (CE 1628–1658), Silver Rupee, AH 1051/15 (KM 235.x)
This coin from Kandahar before it was taken by the Safavids.
Mughal, Shah Jahan I, 1628-1658, AR rupee, Qandahar (Kandahar) , AH 1051 year 15 (CE 1644/5), KM-235.22.
During Shah Jahan's reign, in 1649, Abbas II capitalized on the internal weaknesses of the Mughal Empire and seized Kandahar, a strategically important city that controlled trade routes and served as a buffer between the two empires. Shah Jahan failed to retake Kandahar through military campaigns in 1651–1652, the Safavids held onto the city, securing their dominance in the region. This coin was issued by Abbas II the ruler of the Safavid empire at the time.
Muhammad Shah
This next rupee is a coin from 1732 from another Mughal Shah and great grandson of Babur (Paternal line: Babur → Humayun → Akbar → Jahangir → Shah Jahan → Aurangzeb → Bahadur Shah I → Jahan Shah → Muhammad Shah). Muhammad Shah (CE 1719–1748), often referred to as Muhammad Shah “Rangila” (meaning “the colourful” or “the pleasure-loving”). He is remembered primarily for the cultural vibrancy of his court and the political decline of the empire during his reign. He came to power at a time when the Mughal state was weakened by reduced central authority, following the tumultuous period after Aurangzeb’s death in 1707.
Muhammad Shah (reign CE 1719–1748), Akbarabad Mustaqir al-Khilafa, Silver Rupee (11.4g, 23.7mm), AH 1145, 1732 CE, Regnal Year 15
Obv: sikka mubarak badshah ghazi
Rev: sana julus zarb
References:
This note originally issued in 18-Dec-2021 and updated 11-Dec-2024
An interesting site for a very concise overview of Medieval Islamic History: https://medieval-islamic-history.com/timur/
Cover print for this Note is public domain and comes from : "The universal geography: earth and its inhabitants", Reclus, Elisée, published 1876-94, London, J.S. Virtue & Co., Ltd., Volume 6 : Asiatic Russia
Doukas. Decline and Fall of Byzantium to the Ottoman Turks. Translated and annotated by Harry J. Magoulias, Wayne State University Press, 1975.
Jackson, Peter. From Genghis Khan to Tamerlane: The Reawakening of Mongol Asia. Yale University Press, 2023.
See this British Museum blog with some interesting Chaghatayid manuscripts: https://blogs.bl.uk/asian-and-african/2019/02/classical-central-asia-in-the-digital-age-three-newly-digitised-navoiy-manuscripts-at-the-british-lib.html