Nihayat al-Su’l wa al-Umniya fi Ta‘allum ‘Amal al-Furusiyya. Manuscript, dated Hegira 768 / AD 1366, The Chester Beatty Library, Dublin, Museum Inventory Number: CBL Ar 5655. A compendium of military arts written by Muhammad ibn Isa ibn Isma‘il al-Hanafi al-Aqsari (d. AD 1348, Damascus), who dedicated it to the Mamlūk viceroy of Egypt, Ala al-Din Asanbay al-Abu Bakri. It became the most popular Mamlūk book on furusiyya (horsemanship, chivalry, and military tactics).
The Rise of the Mamluks to Power
The Arabic word مملوك (mamlūk) means "owned" or "possessed." In the context of 13th-century Islamic society, Mamlūks were typically non-Arab individuals who played a significant role as elite military units within Muslim armies. The practice of training enslaved youths for military service began with the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Muʿtasim in Baghdad and soon became common across the Islamic world. Over time, some Mamlūk leaders rose from their positions in the military to become regional administrators (emirs or beys) and even sultans of independent states.
Mamluks in South Asia: The Delhi Sultanate
One of the earliest examples of a Mamlūk ascending to power was Qutb ud-Din Aibak, the founder of the Delhi Sultanate's Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty in India.
Aibak, a native of Turkestan, was sold into slavery as a child and eventually purchased by a judge (qāḍī) in Nishapur. He was later sold to the Ghurid emperor Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori, where he rose through the ranks to become a general responsible for governing Ghurid territories in northern India.
According to Nizami, author of A Comprehensive History of India, Muhammad Ghori was assassinated on 15 March 1206 while offering evening prayers by the Indus River:
"While on his way to Ghazni, Mu'izzuddin halted on the Indus at a place known as Damyak and pitched his tent on a cool, grassy plot on the bank of the river. While he was offering his evening prayers, some assassins34 surreptitiously entered the tent and killed him on 3 Shal'ban AH 602 / 15 March 1206 and turned the victorious army into a funeral procession."
-Nizami, A Comprehensive History of India. Vol. 5 pp.178-179Following Ghori's assassination, Aibak declared his independence and established his rule in Lahore. Despite his brief reign (1206–1210), Aibak laid the foundation for Muslim rule in the Indian subcontinent. After his sudden death in 1210, a succession crisis arose. The local officials appointed Aram Shah as his successor, although Aram's relationship with Aibak remains unclear.
Aibek had been able to say nothing about his succession owing to his sudden death, and the Turkish maliks and amirs were suddenly called upon to choose his successor. Everything was in a fluid state and the slightest delay in deciding the issue would have exposed the infant Muslim state to the hazards of a war of succession. Acting in the best interests of the state, they raised Aram to the throne. Aram Shah was an obscure figure as he was never mentioned, even for once, during the i)receding two decades of incessant military activity.
-Nizami, A Comprehensive History of India. Vol. 5 p.206There were factions within the nobility that didn't accept this appointment. Amir Ali Ismail, commander of the military, seized the moment and with other governors and officers invited Iltutmish, the governor of Badaun, to go quickly to Delhi and occupy the throne.
"Iltutmish had to his credit a distinguished record of service to the Turkish government in India and, besides consideration of his personal merits, the choice was guided by the fact that Aibek used to address him as ‘son’ and had assigned the iqta (land assignment/governorship) of Badaun to him, which was interpreted as an indication of his desire to nominate Iltutmish as his successor. Iltutmish quickly responded to the invitation and marched to Delhi, where he established himself without any difficulty. The occupation of Delhi provided Iltutmish with a strategic place for guarding his interests effectively in all direction."This brings us to a silver Tanka of Iltutmish. Iltutmish consolidated power and became the founder of the Dehli Sultanate.
Delhi Sultans, Iltutmish, 1210-1235, AR tanka (11.06g), no mint, no date, G-D38, local type of the Sind region, always without mint & date, very slight weakness of strike, VF+, RR.
Iltutmish was born to an affluent family who belonged to the Ilbari tribe of the Turks. His father, Ham Khan, was a leader of his tribe. As a youth, he was sold to a slave-dealer by his brothers and cut off from his family. He rose through military ranks to be governor.
Mamluks in Egypt and Syria
The rise of Mamlūk rulers in Egypt and Syria followed a similar trajectory. Initially serving as elite slave-soldiers under the Ayyubid dynasty, Mamlūks were heavily utilized by al-Salih Ayyub, the Ayyubid sultan (r. 1240–1249). Al-Salih Ayyub relied on these Turkish Mamlūks for military strength, promoting them to positions of power as he sidelined other emirs.
al-Salih Ayyub died in November 1249 during the Seventh Crusade led by Louis IX of France, during Crusader's invasion of Egypt. A power struggle ensued in which rebel Mamlūk's assassinated his son and successor, Turan-Shah. From 1250 on-wards, the Mamlūks ruled in Egypt and Syria.
The Mamluk Sultanate endured for over two and a half centuries, characterized by two distinct dynasties:
"Bahri" is derived from the Arabic word "Bahr" (meaning "sea"), referencing the elite guard stationed on Roda Island in the Nile River during the early Mamluk period. This geographic association became symbolic of the dynasty. The Bahri rulers emphasized ties to their Turkic heritage and often patronized art, architecture, and literature influenced by their Turkic roots.
"Burji" comes from the Arabic word "Burj" (meaning "tower"), referencing the elite Circassian Mamluks who were garrisoned in the towers of the Cairo Citadel. These rulers were predominantly Circassians, recruited from the Caucasus region.
Mamluk Fals Al Mansur Muhamed II (CE 17-Mar-1361 – 29-May-1363), Dimashq mint, 763 AH (CE 1361–1362) Zeno 280954.
Al-Salih Hajji II and the End of the Bahri Dynasty
The reign of Al-Salih Hajji II (r. 1381–1382, 1389–1390) was a continuation of the long lasting instability in Mamluk rule. Placed on the throne as a child, Hajji II's rule was dominated by his regent, al-Zahir Barquq, who ultimately deposed him. Barquq became the first sultan of the Burji dynasty, reigning from 1382 to 1389.
Hajji II was briefly reinstated during a revolt against Barquq but was deposed again in 1390. After his removal, Hajji II was imprisoned, and historical accounts suggest he was either executed or remained incarcerated until his death, marking the end of the Bahri dynasty.
This coin was issued during a short period in which Hajji II was reestablished as sultan during and revolt against Barquq.
Mamluk AE fals, Hajji II, 2nd reign, Dimashq, 791 AH (CE 1389–1390). Balog 532. Zeno 329062.
After his deposition in 1390, Al-Salih Hajji was imprisoned. His fate after this is uncertain, historical accounts suggest he was either executed or remained imprisoned until his death, effectively removing him from political relevance.
The Mamluk Legacy
From Iltutmish in India to the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt and Syria, these rulers often started as enslaved soldiers and rose to power through merit and military prowess. Their reigns, while marked by frequent power struggles, also produced periods of stability, cultural patronage, and military success, leaving an enduring legacy in regions they ruled.
References:
Khaliq, Ahmed Nizami. A Comprehensive History of India. Vol. 5. People’s Publishing House, 1970.
Al-Maqrīzī, Aḥmad ibn ʻAlī. Histoire des Sultans Mamlouks de l'Égypte. Translated and edited by M. Quatremère, Oriental Translation Fund, 1845.
Irwin, Robert. The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate, 1250–1382. Routledge, 1986.
Irwin, Robert. "The Rise of the Mamluks." The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 5: c. 1198–c. 1300, edited by David Abulafia, Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 607-621.
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