This set of notes started from a discussion of "syncretism" and when or how Zeus and Serapis started to blend across Greco-Roman-Egyptian religion with Zeus. When is it appropriate to identify Serapis vs. Zeus-Serapis on a coin of Roman Egypt? Serapis has interesting roots in the wake of the death of Alexander the Great and the formative years of Ptolemaic Egypt.
Egypt, Alexandria. Nero. AD 54-68. BI Tetradrachm, Dated RY 10 (AD 63/64).
Obv: NEPΩ KΛAV KAIΣ ΣEB ΓEP, radiate head right
Rev: AYTO KPA, draped bust of Serapis right, wearing taenia and calathus; L I (date) before.
Ref: Köln 160–1; Dattari (Savio) 251–2; K&G 14.77 corr. (obv. legend); RPC I 5274; Emmett 133.10
This is the first Alexandrian Tetradrachm of Nero to feature Zeus-Sarapis or Serapis, the greatest deity of the Greco-Egyptian pantheon.
This coin started a journey to find out if there is some way to differentiate "Serapis" from "Zeus-Serapis" - are there two forms of this deity that can be distinguished on Roman coins? The portrait of Serapis on this coin resembles this statue from the Serapeum of Alexandria. A Serapeum is a temple or religious complex dedicated to the Greco-Egyptian god Serapis. The most famous Serapeum was located in Alexandria, Egypt, and under Ptolemy III a library was established in the Serapeum that was connected to the Great Library of Alexandria.
Ptolemy I Soter
After the death of Alexander there was a scramble for succession. Ptolemy was one of the generals of Alexander who created a new empire. Several good political moves, alliances and military victories solidified Ptolemy's position from his initial role as satrap of Egypt, a wealthy and strategically important region.
Among these moves:
321 BCE: the bold move of intercepting and seizing the body of Alexander the Great en route to Macedonia, which he then brought to Memphis (and later Alexandria). This gave him significant symbolic power, associating him with Alexander's legacy and further legitimizing his rule in Egypt.
321 BCE: his alliance with Antipater and Antigonus and defeat of Perdiccas, regent of the Macedonian empire, who viewed Ptolemy’s actions as a direct challenge and marched on Egypt to subdue him. Ptolemy outmaneuvered him militarily, and Perdiccas was assassinated by his own soldiers during a failed invasion of Egypt. This victory solidified Ptolemy’s position and removed one of his most dangerous rivals.
320 BCE: the peace settlement made at the Partition of Triparadisus, where Ptolemy’s control of Egypt was confirmed, and he secured additional territories in Cyrene and parts of the Levant.
Ptolemy leveraged both ancient pharaonic traditions and Greek traditions to establish legitimacy in the eyes of both Macedonian and Egyptian populations. In 305 BCE, Ptolemy, along with other of the Diadochi, declared himself king (Basileus). This formalized his independence and marked the beginning of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt.
Catherine Lorber's "Coins of the Ptolemaic Empire" provides a very readable summary carefully tethered to historical evidence. This coin from Ptolemy II shows the early iconography of the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Ptolemaic Kings of Egypt, Ptolemy II Philadelphos (285-246 BC), AE obol, Alexandria.
Obv: Deified head of Alexander the Great right, wearing elephant skin.
Rev: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΠΤΟΛΕΜΑΙΟΥ, eagle standing left on thunderbolt; Θ between legs.
Ref: Lorber CPE B237; Svoronos 467;
The diademed head of deified Ptolemy I a fixture on Ptolemaic tetradrachms - seen here on coins of Kleopatra III and Ptolemy IX for Regnal Year 7 = 111/0 BC and 10 = 108/7 BC.
Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, Kleopatra III and Ptolemy IX Soter II (Lathyros) AR Tetradrachm. Alexandria, dated RY 7 = 111/0 BC. Diademed head to right, wearing aegis / [ΠTO]ΛEΜAIOY BAΣIΛEΩΣ, eagle with closed wings standing to left on thunderbolt; L エ (date) to left, ΠΑ to right. Svoronos 1668;
Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, Kleopatra III and Ptolemy IX Soter II (Lathyros) AR Tetradrachm. Alexandria, dated RY 10 = 108/7 BC. Diademed head to right, wearing aegis / ΠTOΛEΜAIOY BAΣIΛEΩΣ, eagle with closed wings standing to left on thunderbolt; L I (date) to left, ΠΑ to right. Svoronos 1671;
Serapis in Egypt
In her chapter on Ptolemy I, Lorber describes the way in which Ptolemy gained control of Egypt after the death of Alexander and another key move : the establishment of the cult of Serapis.
"Ptolemy drew on the advice of both native and Greek religious advisors, notably the Egyptian priest Manetho of Sebynnetos and Timotheus of Athens, a descendant of Eumolpidae (the hereditary priests of Eleusis) and thus an expert on the Great Mysteries of Demeter. These two religious experts are credited with encouraging Ptolemy to found the cult of Serapis at Alexandria. Most likely this occurred in connection with the transfer of his residence from Emmphis to his New capital. The Alexandria cult of Serapis was an offshoot of the Memphite cult of Osirir-Apis (Osarapis)."
-Catherine Lorber, Coins of the Ptolemaic Empire, Vol 1, pp. 19-20This choice likely adding to Ptolemy's positioning as Alexander's successor. Alexander had sacrificed to Apis in his conquest of Egypt.
"In Egypt, Alexander tried to present himself as a local ruler, for example by sacrificing to the Apis bull, a ritual that the Greeks believed to be important for the Egyptians. Among the royal titles accepted by Alexander were ancient names like “beloved by Amun” and “chosen by Ra”. The important point, however, was the common pharaonic title “son of Ra”, which might be translated as both “son of Zeus” (because Ra was Egypt’s supreme god) and “son of Helios” (because Ra was a solar deity). Both must have appealed to Alexander, who belonged to a dynasty that claimed to descend from Zeus’ son Heracles, and was somehow connected to the sun as well (see Herodotus 8.137)."
-Livius.og, Alexander's Self-DeificationSerapis from the days of Ptolemy I brought together elements of multiple deities:
"The god Serapis was a combination of the sacred bull, the Apis, and the god of the dead Osiris. In order to unify the Greeks and the Egyptians under one religion, Ptolemy I and his Greek advisors created a new god called Zeus-Serapis. They combined the already popular Serapis with Zeus, the King of the gods according to Greek and Roman belief. Images of Zeus-Serapis reflected both Greek and Egyptian traditions. The statues closely resembled Greek statues of Zeus, but they were also often wearing an object on their heads which was a common feature of ancient Egyptian statues of gods. Zeus-Serapis was usually depicted with a grain basket or measuring cup on his head, symbolising wealth and the harvest."
-Chiddingstone Castle, Zeus SerapisRoman Rule in Egypt
Egypt came under Roman rule after the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII by Octavian (the future Emperor Augustus) at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Cleopatra and Antony both committed suicide.
What connection did Serapis have to Zeus? and when was this connection made?
Diodorus Siculus writing mid-1st Century BCE shares this not so definitive explanation of who Serapis (Sarapis) and Isis are:
"In general, there is great disagreement over these gods. For the same goddess is called by some Isis, by others Demeter, by others Thesmophorus, by others Selenê, by others Hera, while still others apply to her all these names. Osiris has been given the name Sarapis by some, Dionysus by others, Pluto by others, Ammon by others, Zeus by some, and many have considered Pan to be the same god; and some say that Sarapis is the god whom the Greeks call Pluto."
-Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History, Book I, 25.1-2 and there is little doubt of the equivalency between Serapis and Zeus being well recognized by the second century AD.
2. It so fortuned that it was at that time the sacred festival of the great god whom the Greeks call Zeus, the Egyptians Serapis, and there was a procession of torches. It was the greatest spectacle I ever beheld, for it was late evening and the sun had gone down; but there was no sign of night—it was as though another sun had arisen, but distributed into small parts in every direction; I thought that on that occasion the city vied with the sky for beauty.
-Achilles Tatius (circa 100 - 170 AD), Leucippe and Clitophon, V.2This papyrus from the time of Hadrian that mentions the equivalence of Zeus-Helios-Serapis (Papyrus Oxyshynchus 11, 1382)
Translation:
"... he said: 'For your sake, I will bestow the water upon the people of Pharos.' And having saluted him, he sailed forth and gave the water to the people of Pharos, receiving from them as its value 100 drachmae of silver. This act of grace is registered in the libraries of Mercurium. Let all present say: 'There is one Zeus Sarapis.'(Title) The act of grace of Zeus-Helios, Great Sarapis, regarding Syrion the pilot."Robert Turcan in the "The Cults of The Roman Empire" has a section (pp.76-128) that covers "Zeus-Serapis & Hellenized Egypt" without drawing a very clear connection between Zeus and Serapis beyond the title.
The NY MET has this statuette of Zeus-Serapis
The MET description of this statuette: "Serapis was essentially a construct of the Ptolemaic Greek rulers of Egypt, a conflation of the local gods Osiris and Apis. Although gradually subsumed into the all-pervading cult of Isis, Serapis was worshipped throughout the Roman world in the guise of Zeus, ruler of the heavens, or that of Hades, god of the Underworld."Two key reference books on coins of Roman Egypt, Emmett and Chrstianson, don't mention Zeus-Serapis. Another, by J.G. Milne, on the basis of the legend "ΖΕΥΣ ΣΑΡΑΠΙΣ" these coins of Vespasian (444 standing (RPC 2451) and 450 (https://rpc.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/coins/2/2457https://rpc.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/coins/2/2457) seated both illustrated on Plate IV) were clearly intended to show "Zeus-Serapis". Milne notes on pp. 14-147:
"Zeus-, standing, similar to last (crowned with modius, wearing chiton and himation, resting r. hand on scepter, l. wrapped in the folds of himation), but himation over left shoulder and round legs only."This is not my coin (ex CNG Auction 427 Lot 394 22-Aug-2018)
The legend on these coins is the first (and only? at least I find no others in ACSearch) call out " ΖΕΥΣ ΣΑΡΑΠΙΣ" in teh legend. Perhaps a reason to connect specifically for Vespasian is the story of Vespasian engaging with Serapis as told by Tacitus IV.82. Tacitus tells of several miracles connecting Vespasian and Serapis.
These events gave Vespasian a deeper desire to visit the sanctuary of the god to consult him with regard to his imperial fortune: he ordered all to be excluded from the temple. Then after he had entered the temple and was absorbed in contemplation of the god, he saw behind him one of the leading men of Egypt, named Basilides (i.e. son of King), who he knew was detained by sickness in a place many days' journey distant from Alexandria. He asked the priests whether Basilides had entered the temple on that day; he questioned the passers-by whether he had been seen in the city; finally, he sent some cavalry and found that at that moment he had been eighty miles away: then he concluded that this was a supernatural vision and drew a prophecy from the name Basilides.
-Tacitus The Histories IV.82Also Vespasian acclaimed emperor on July 1, AD 69, by the legions stationed in Egypt and Judea.
John E. Stambaugh, in Sarapis Under the Early Ptolemies. E. J. Brill, 1972, also makes the connection between Zeus-Serapis and Vespasian, and references the papyrus above.
Stambaugh references another book by Erik Petersen from 1926 which links the the coins with Zeus-Serapis of Vespasian to Vogt.
"This is not the place to delve into the connection between Zeus and Serapis expressed in this formula. The question seems more complicated than it first appears. The epigraphic evidence for this connection is not very abundant. Particularly in earlier times, the triad of Serapis, Isis, and Anubis seems to have predominated. Among the numerous dedications to Egyptian deities in Delos, only one (from 112/111 BCE) is directed to Zeus-Serapis (Roussel, Les Cultes Égyptiens à Délos, p. 151, No. 126). Then, it seems that 'the coins from the 8th and 9th years of Vespasian’s reign are the first securely dated examples' of this Zeus-Serapis connection (Joseph Vogt, Die Alexandrinischen Münzen I (1924) p. 44). Vogt concludes from this: 'As much as the visual representation of Serapis from the outset might suggest a connection with Zeus, the formal union was only completed in the imperial period.'"
-Erik Petersen, 1926, Epigraphische, formgeschichtliche und religionsgeschichtliche untersuchungen, pp. 236There is some evidence that the link between Zeus and Serapis is much older.
Macrobius Saturnalia XX.13, writing in the 4th century AD, provides some weak evidence of this association being as early as late 4th century BC with reference the Nicocreon who was king of Salamis in Cyprus, at the time of Alexander the Great's (336–323 BC) expedition against Persia.
Now, listen to what is declared by the oracle about the sun or Serapis. For Serapis, whom the Egyptians proclaimed as their greatest god, when asked by Nicocreon, the king of Cyprus, which of the gods he was, enlightened the king's anxious piety with these verses:
'Εἰμὶ θεὸς τοιόσδε μαθεῖν, οἷόν κ’ ἐγὼ εἴπω· οὐράνιος κόσμος κεφαλὴ, γαστὴρ δὲ θάλασσα, γαῖα δέ μοι πόδες εἰσὶ, τὰ δ’ ουἄτ’ ἐν αἰθέρι κεῖται, ὄμμα τε τηλαυγὲς λαμπρὸν φάος ἠελίοιο.'
(Translation: 'I am such a god as this, know it well, as I declare: The heavens are my head, the sea my belly, The earth is my feet, and my ears rest in the sky, My eye, far-shining, is the bright light of the sun.')
From this, it is clear that Serapis and the sun are of one and indivisible nature. Isis is also honored by a shared religious tradition, being either the earth or the nature of things subordinate to the sun. This is why the goddess’ body is shown with uninterrupted full breasts, as the universe is nourished by either the earth’s or the nature of things’ sustenance."
- Macrobius, Saturnalia, XX.13 A similar description of Zeus makes a connection between Helios and Zeus.
Stambaugh - highlights the link between this verse describing Serapis and a Hymn to Zeus from Cleanthes.
Seleucid Zeus-Serapis?
One other note is this coin (SC 1412) : not my coin Biga Numismatics Online Auction 23 Lot 269 24-Sept-2023.
In Seleucid Coins from Haughton, Lorber and Hoover there is a note that this coin (SC 1412) from the Egyptionizing series, the largest of 4 denominations, was corrected (from Zeus-Serapis to Zeus) by Le Rider (Antiochos IV (175-164) et le monnayage de bronze séleucide, Georges Le Rider, Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Année 1994 118-1 pp. 17-34). Le Rider notes:
"on the obverse, the heaviest denomination bears the head of Zeus (fig. 1, 1); the two following denominations have a head of Serapis, identifiable by his basileion (fig. 1, 2); the fourth shows the head of Isis, also wearing her basileion)"The "basileon" on Serapis on a smaller denomination (SC 1413) from the same series is described as "wearing taenia with Osiris cap at tip". The difference can be seen comparing with this coin (also not my coin from Gemini Auction VI Lot 231 1-Oct-2010.
This coin (not my coin - from CNG eAuction 265 Lot 223 10-May-2011) is often (incorrectly based on Le Rider) described as Zeus-Serapis, Isis Jugate busts. As with the other coins of Antiochos IV this should be Serapis (with basileon/wearing taenia with Osiris cap at tip).
Here is my example of the coin of Isis from this series of Antiochus IV (SC 1414) with "basileion" or "Isis crown atop taenia".
Conclusions
It seems reasonable to conclude that by Nero's time, Romans would have generally seen Zeus - Serapis as "Chief God(s)" (two gods blended or merged under a common framework of Greco-Roman-Egyptian gods) together with Helios based on Papyrus Oxyshynchus 11, 1382.
The discernible differences between Zeus and Serapis on the coins of Antiochos IV don't give us a clue into what a Zeus-Serapis would have as attributes. A pose of Zeus with attributes of Serapis seems to be the best option - but doesn't Serapis always look like he is posing as Zeus?
The differences in the way Serapis appears on Roman coins of Alexandria don’t seem to differentiate a "Zeus-Serapis" from "Serapis" - although if we use the example of Vespasian - then perhaps the three headed dog is the clue? Or “posed like Zeus”? This seems hard to generalize without more examples. The coins of Vespasian with a legend of "ΖΕΥΣ ΣΑΡΑΠΙΣ" seem to be outliers, I am not aware of other coins that have this legend - perhaps reinforcing Vespasian's unique powers.
This coin from Hadrian with the three headed dog it is not linked to Pluto? Could this also be described as "Zeus-Serapis"? RPC calls this Serapis as does Milne who describes Hadrian's coin as "Serapis standing left". There are coins from Hadrian that are described as Serapis-Ammon which look to me like they are "Zeus-Ammon" - which only leave me wondering how these might be different from each other.
Egypt, Alexandria, Hadrian, AD 117-138, BI Tetradrachm, dated RY 10 (AD 125/6).
Obv: Laureate, draped, and cuirassed bust right, seen from behind
Rev: Serapis standing left, holding scepter, extending his right hand over Cerberus seated at his feet left; L ΔE KATOY (date) around.
Ref: Köln 914; Dattari (Savio) 1471; K&G 32.359; RPC III 5594; Emmett 891.10.
Diodorus Siculus describes the ambiguity ("great disagreement over these gods") already in the 1st century BC.
When is it appropriate to identify Serapis vs. Zeus-Serapis on a coin of Roman Egypt?
I have not found a way to recognize a Zeus-Serapis on Roman coins, and Serapis seems the most appropriate description in most cases. The exception : a clear legend like the one of Vespasian.
An open question : would the three headed Cerberus make an explicit link with Pluto/Hades and should we also identify this coin from Hadrian as "Serapis-Hades"?
Without an explicit reference on the coin - there is little to be found to differentiate Zeus-Serapis from Zeus and I would choose to use "Serapis" for anything that has the headdress of Serapis, but it does seem that it would also be reasonable to attribute any Serapis in a pose of Zeus as "Zeus-Serapis" given the blurring of Zeus-Helios-Serapis.
By the time of the Roman Empire there is clearly overlap/blurring (syncretism) between Serapis and Zeus and I won't speculate as to whether this is that they are two gods or two names for the same god or two aspects of one god. Great battles have been fought over such differences.
Zeus and Ammon
Here are a few other forms of Zeus on Egyptian coins, as "Zeus" on this coin of Ptolemy II
And Zeus with the horns of Ammon, easily recognized as Zeus-Ammon on these coins of Marcus Aurelius
and Zeus Ammon on this coin of Gordian III.
Serapis and The Great God Darzalas
To complicate matters more, when Serapis is shown on a coin of Gordian III with a prize crown labelled "ΔAPZAΛEIA" (Darzaleia) we can add syncretism with the Thacian "Great God". More on this in another set of notes:
Roman Provincial Coin, Moesia Inferior, Odessus, Gordian III (238-244), AE 9.83g 26.5mm, Pentassarion Obv: AVT M ANT ΓOPΔIANOC AVΓ, draped busts of Gordian, laureate and cuirassed, and Serapis-Darzalas, wearing calathus and with cornucopia over shoulder, facing one another
Rev: OΔHCCEITΩN, Prize crown, containing two palm fronds and inscribed ΔAPZAΛEIA; E (mark of value) in exergue
Ref: RPC VII.2, 1499; AMNG 2372; Varbanov 4527.
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